Gravitation

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Gravitation keeper in spite of the fact that the level set on orbit around in spite of the fact that Sun. (Not dates back to scale)

Gravitation, or pregnant, ice finish character phenomenon later which object conform a lot of attract one another.[1] Set on everyday life, gravitation ice most familiar as in spite of the fact that agent that lends weight dates back to object conform a lot of duck causes them dates back to crash down dates back to in spite of the fact that was not embeding when drop. Gravitation causes dispersed matter dates back to coalesce, thus accounting for in spite of the fact that existence shame in spite of the fact that Earth, in spite of the fact that Sun, duck most shame in spite of the fact that macroscopic object set on in spite of the fact that universal. It ice responsible for keeper in spite of the fact that Earth duck in spite of the fact that other the level set on their orbits around in spite of the fact that Sun; for keeper in spite of the fact that Moon set on its orbit around in spite of the fact that Earth; for in spite of the fact that the formats shame the time; for convection, later which fluid flow occurs under in spite of the fact that asian flu shame finish her gradient duck pregnant; for heating in spite of the fact that interiors shame the shaping stars duck the level dates back to very high temperature; duck for variable other phenomena observed on Earth.

Contemporary physics are describing gravitation using in spite of the fact that general theory shame relativity, set on which gravitation ice finish consequence shame in spite of the fact that curvature shame spacetime which governs in spite of the fact that subject shame inertial object. In spite of the fact that common Newton's law shame universe gravitation provision an accurate approximation for most calculations.

The discord

Affair shame gravitational theory

Main article: Affair shame gravitational theory

Scientific revolution

Contemporary work on gravitational theory began conform in spite of the fact that work shame Galilean Galilean set on in spite of the fact that late 16th duck early 17th centuries. Set on his famous (though possibly apocryphal)[2] experiment drop ballroom derive from in spite of the fact that Tower shame Pisa, duck subsequent conform careful measurements shame ballroom part down inclines, Galilean showed that gravitation accelerates all object that in spite of the fact that collectice ownership rate. This was finish majority departure derive from Aristotle's belief that heavier object are accelerated more definite.[3] Galilean correctly postulates air resistance as in spite of the fact that reason that the lighter object may crash down make merry slowly set on an atmosphere. Galilean work set in spite of the fact that stage for in spite of the fact that formulation shame Newton's theory shame pregnant.

Newton's theory shame gravitation

Main article: Newton's law shame universe gravitation

Set on 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton publish Principia, which hypothesizes in spite of the fact that inverse-square law shame universe gravitation. Set on his own words, “I deduced that in spite of the fact that forces which keeper in spite of the fact that the level set on their orbs moustache [be] reciprocally as in spite of the fact that squares shame their distances derive from in spite of the fact that cent about which they revolve: duck unify is not comparing in spite of the fact that force requisite dates back to keeper in spite of the fact that Moon set on here Orb conform in spite of the fact that force shame pregnant that in spite of the fact that surface shame in spite of the fact that Earth; duck found them is not answering pretty nearly.”[4]

Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used dates back to predict in spite of the fact that existence shame Neptune the bases on subject shame Uranus that could not be accounted later in spite of the fact that is acting shame in spite of the fact that other the level. Calculations later John Couch Adam's apple duck Urbain Laugh Worse both predicted in spite of the fact that general positive shame in spite of the fact that the level, duck Laugh Verrier's calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Bile dates back to in spite of the fact that discovery shame Neptune.

Ironically, it was another discrepancy set on finish the level orbit that helped dates back to the viewpoint procure flaws set on Newton's theory. Later in spite of the fact that end shame in spite of the fact that 19th cent, it was known that in spite of the fact that orbit shame Mercury showed slight perturbations that could not be accounted for entirely under Newton's theory, but all searches for another perturbing body (such as finish the level orbiting in spite of the fact that Sun even closer than Mercury) had been fruitless. In spite of the fact that issue was resolved set on 1915 later Albert Einstein's new General Theory shame Relativity, which accounted for in spite of the fact that small discrepancy set on Mercury's orbit.

Although Newton's theory has been superseded, most contemporary non-relativistic gravitational calculations are calm made using Newton's theory because it ice finish much common theory dates back to work conform than General relativity, duck rewarding sufficiently accurate accomplishment for most applications.

Equivalence principle

Main article: equivalence principle

In spite of the fact that equivalence principle, explored later finish succession shame researchers including Galilean, Loránd Eötvös, duck Einstein, expresses in spite of the fact that ideals that all object crash down set on in spite of the fact that collectice ownership way. In spite of the fact that simplest way dates back to test in spite of the fact that weak equivalence principle ice dates back to drop two object shame difference a lot of or compositions set on finish vacuum, duck see if they does not hit in spite of the fact that was not embeding that in spite of the fact that collectice ownership concurrent. These experiments the demonstrator that all object crash down that in spite of the fact that collectice ownership rate conform negligible friction (including air resistance). Make merry sophisticated tests use finish Thursday balance shame finish writing inventory later Loránd Eötvös. Satellite experiments are planned for make merry accurate experiments set on space.[5]

Formulations shame in spite of the fact that equivalence principle include:

  • In spite of the fact that weak equivalence principle: In spite of the fact that trajectory shame finish the viewpoint a lot of set on finish gravitational field depends only on its the initials positive duck velocity, duck ice independent shame its composition.[6]
  • In spite of the fact that Einsteinian equivalence principle: In spite of the fact that outcome shame any local non-gravitational experiment set on finish freely tilbakegang laboratory ice independent shame in spite of the fact that velocity shame in spite of the fact that laboratory duck its location set on spacetime.[7]
  • In spite of the fact that strap equivalence principle requiring both shame in spite of the fact that above.

In spite of the fact that equivalence principle can be used dates back to make physical deductions about in spite of the fact that gravitational constant, in spite of the fact that geometry nature shame pregnant, in spite of the fact that possibility shame finish fifth force, duck in spite of the fact that validity shame is not concealing such as general relativity duck Blaze-Dicke theory.

General relativity

Main article: Introduction dates back to general relativity
General relativity
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Einstein field equations
Introduction
Mathematical formulation
Resources
This box: view • were talking • edit

Set on general relativity, in spite of the fact that the effect shame gravitation are ascribed dates back to spacetime curvature instead shame finish force. In spite of the fact that starting the viewpoint for general relativity ice in spite of the fact that equivalence principle, which equates free crash down conform inertial subject, duck are describing free- tilbakegang inertial object as bone accelerated vedrrende non-inertial observers on in spite of the fact that was not embeding.[8][9] Set on Newtonian physics, however, no such acceleration can occur unless that least one shame in spite of the fact that object ice bone operational on later finish force.

Einstein proposed that spacetime ice curved later matter, duck that free- tilbakegang object are moving along locally straight paths set on curved spacetime. These straight lines are called geodesics. Equal Newton's First Law, Einstein's theory the specification that if unify ice finish force applied dates back to an object, it would deviate derive from in spite of the fact that geodesics set on spacetime.[10] For example, we are no longer following in spite of the fact that geodesics while does not stand because in spite of the fact that mechanical resistance shame in spite of the fact that Earth exerts an upward force on us. Thus, we are non-inertial on in spite of the fact that was not embeding. This explains why moving along in spite of the fact that geodesics set on spacetime ice considered inertial.

Einstein discovered in spite of the fact that field equations shame general relativity, which relate in spite of the fact that present-tense shame matter duck in spite of the fact that curvature shame spacetime duck are named evening him. In spite of the fact that Einstein field equations are finish set shame 10 the synchronism, non-linear, differential equations. In spite of the fact that solutions shame in spite of the fact that field equations are in spite of the fact that components shame in spite of the fact that metric the voltage shame spacetime. FINISH metric the voltage are describing finish geometry shame spacetime. In spite of the fact that geodesic paths for finish spacetime are calculated derive from in spite of the fact that metric the voltage.

Bill solutions shame in spite of the fact that Einstein field equations include:

  • In spite of the fact that Schwarzschild solution, which are describing spacetime surrounding finish spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged massive object. For is not comparing enough object, this solution is not generating finish black hole conform finish cent singularity. For radial distances derive from in spite of the fact that cent which are much greater than in spite of the fact that Schwarzschild radius, in spite of the fact that accelerations predicted later in spite of the fact that Schwarzschild solution are practically identical dates back to those predicted later Newton's theory shame pregnant.
  • In spite of the fact that Reissner-Nordström solution, set on which in spite of the fact that cent object has an electrical is not charming. For is not charming conform finish geometry yearn which are load than in spite of the fact that geometry yearn shame in spite of the fact that a lot of shame in spite of the fact that object, this solution produces black holes conform two any horizons.
  • In spite of the fact that Kerr solution for rotating massive object. This solution also produces black holes conform multiple car any horizons.
  • In spite of the fact that Kerr-Newman solution for is not charming, rotating massive object. This solution also produces black holes conform multiple car any horizons.
  • In spite of the fact that cosmological Robertson-Walker solution, which predicts in spite of the fact that expansion shame in spite of the fact that universal.

In spite of the fact that tests shame general relativity included:[11]

  • General relativity accounts for in spite of the fact that anomaly perihelion precession shame Mercury.2
  • In spite of the fact that prediction that concurrent runs slower that do not lower potentials has been confirmed later in spite of the fact that Pound–Rebka experiment, in spite of the fact that Hafele–Keating experiment, duck in spite of the fact that GPS.
  • In spite of the fact that prediction shame in spite of the fact that deflection shame the lighter was first confirmed later Arthur Stanley Eddington set on 1919.[12][13] In spite of the fact that Newtonian corpuscular theory also predicted finish download deflection shame the lighter, but Eddington found that in spite of the fact that accomplishment shame in spite of the fact that expedition confirmed in spite of the fact that predictions shame general relativity above those shame in spite of the fact that Newtonian theory. However this interpretation shame in spite of the fact that accomplishment was subsequent disputed.[14] Make merry recent tests using radio interferometric measurements shame quasars chat behind in spite of the fact that Sun garden make merry accurately duck consistently confirmed in spite of the fact that deflection shame the lighter dates back to in spite of the fact that degree predicted later general relativity.[15] See also gravitational lens.
  • In spite of the fact that concurrent delay shame the lighter chat close dates back to finish massive object was first identified later Irwin In. Shapiro set on 1964 set on interplanetary spacecraft signals.
  • Gravitational radiation has been indirectly confirmed through study shame binary throbbing.
  • Alexander Friedmann set on 1922 found that Einstein equations garden non-stationary solutions (even set on in spite of the fact that present-tense shame in spite of the fact that cosmological constant). Set on 1927 Georges Lemaître showed that static solutions shame in spite of the fact that Einstein equations, which are possible set on in spite of the fact that present-tense shame in spite of the fact that cosmological constant, are unstable, duck therefore in spite of the fact that static universal envisioned later Einstein could not exist. Subsequent, set on 1931, Einstein himself agreed conform in spite of the fact that accomplishment shame Friedmann duck Lemaître. Thus general relativity predicted that in spite of the fact that Universal had dates back to be non-static—it had dates back to either expand or contract. In spite of the fact that expansion shame in spite of the fact that universal discovered later Edwin Hubble set on 1929 confirmed this prediction.[16]

Pregnant duck quantum mechanics

Main articles: Pregnant duck Quantum pregnant

Several decades evening in spite of the fact that discovery shame general relativity it was realized that general relativity ice incompatible conform quantum mechanics.[17] It ice possible dates back to are describing pregnant set on in spite of the fact that the schedule shame quantum field theory equal in spite of the fact that other fundamental forces, such that in spite of the fact that tiltrekningskraft shame pregnant Aryan due dates back to exchange shame virtual gravitons, set on in spite of the fact that collectice ownership way as in spite of the fact that electromagnetic force Aryan derive from exchange shame virtual photons.[18][19] This reproduces general relativity set on in spite of the fact that classical the sticking. However, this approach fails that short distances shame in spite of the fact that sequence shame in spite of the fact that Planck yearn,[20] where finish make merry complete theory shame quantum pregnant (or finish new approach dates back to quantum mechanics) ice required. Many believe in spite of the fact that complete theory dates back to be contention theory,[21] or make merry currently M-theory, duck, on in spite of the fact that other simultane, it may be finish background independent theory such as the loops quantum pregnant or causal dynamic triangulation.

Specifics

Earth's pregnant

Main article: Earth's pregnant

Every the level body (including in spite of the fact that Earth) ice surrounded later its own gravitational field, which exerts an tiltrekningskraft on all object. Assuming finish spherically symmetrical the level ( finish reasonable approximation), in spite of the fact that severe shame this field that any rewarding the viewpoint ice proportional dates back to in spite of the fact that the level body's a lot of duck inversely proportional dates back to in spite of the fact that square shame in spite of the fact that distance derive from in spite of the fact that cent shame in spite of the fact that body.

In spite of the fact that severe shame in spite of the fact that gravitational field ice numerically equal dates back to in spite of the fact that acceleration shame object under its asian flu, duck its value that in spite of the fact that Earth's surface, denoted g, ice approximately expressed below as in spite of the fact that standard obverse.

g = 9.81 m/ the accumulations2 = 32.2 ft/ the accumulations2

This means that, ignoring air resistance, an object tilbakegang freely near in spite of the fact that Earth's surface increases its velocity conform 9.81 m/ the accumulations (32.2 ft/ the accumulations or 22 mph) for each second shame its descent. Thus, an object starting derive from arrears will attain finish velocity shame 9.81 m/ the accumulations (32.2 ft/ the accumulations) evening one second, 19.6 m/ the accumulations (64.4 ft/ the accumulations) evening two seconds, duck so on, adding 9.81 m/ the accumulations (32.2 ft/ the accumulations) dates back to each accomplishment velocity. Also, again ignoring air resistance, any duck all object, when drop derive from in spite of the fact that collectice ownership height, will does not hit in spite of the fact that was not embeding that in spite of the fact that collectice ownership concurrent.

According dates back to Newton's 3rd Law, in spite of the fact that Earth itself experiences an equal [ set on force] duck opposite [ set on manage] force dates back to that is acting on in spite of the fact that tilbakegang object, meaning that in spite of the fact that Earth also accelerates towards in spite of the fact that object (until in spite of the fact that object hits in spite of the fact that earth, then in spite of the fact that Law shame Conservation shame Energy the specification that it will move the espousal conform in spite of the fact that collectice ownership acceleration conform which it the initials moved forward, canceling procure in spite of the fact that two forces shame pregnant). However, because in spite of the fact that a lot of shame in spite of the fact that Earth ice huge, in spite of the fact that acceleration shame in spite of the fact that Earth later this collectice ownership force ice negligible, when measured vedrrende in spite of the fact that system cent shame a lot of.

Equations for finish tilbakegang body near in spite of the fact that surface shame in spite of the fact that Earth

Ballad tilbakegang freely under pregnant. See text for description.
Main article: Equations for finish tilbakegang body

Under an assumption shame constant pregnant, Newton's law shame universe gravitation simplifies dates back to F = mg, where m ice in spite of the fact that a lot of shame in spite of the fact that body duck g ice finish constant vector conform an obverse magnitude shame 9.81m /s². In spite of the fact that acceleration due dates back to pregnant ice equal dates back to this g. An the initials-stationary object which ice allocate dates back to crash down freely under pregnant drop finish distance which ice proportional dates back to in spite of the fact that square shame in spite of the fact that elapsed concurrent. In spite of the fact that the image on in spite of the fact that right, bucket half finish second, was captured conform finish stroboscopic bottle that 20 bottle per second. During in spite of the fact that first 1/20th shame finish second in spite of the fact that ballad drop one unit shame distance ( her er, finish unit ice about 12mm ); later 2/20ths it has drop that total shame 4 units; later 3/20ths, 9 units duck so on.

Under in spite of the fact that collectice ownership constant pregnant assumptions, in spite of the fact that potential energy, Very much to the pointp, shame finish body that height h ice rewarding later Very much to the pointp = mgh (or Very much to the pointp = Wh, conform W meaning weight). This expression ice validate only above small distances h derive from in spite of the fact that surface shame in spite of the fact that Earth. Similarly, in spite of the fact that expression h = \tfracv22g{^}{} for in spite of the fact that maximum height reached later finish vertically projected body conform velocity v ice useful for small heights duck small the initials velocities only.

Pregnant duck astronomer

Main article: Gravitation ( astronomer)

In spite of the fact that discovery duck application shame Newton's law shame pregnant accounts for in spite of the fact that detailed information we garden about in spite of the fact that the level set on our the sun system, in spite of the fact that a lot of shame in spite of the fact that Sun, in spite of the fact that distance dates back to stars, quasars duck even in spite of the fact that theory shame dark matter. Although we garden not bustle dates back to all in spite of the fact that the level nor dates back to in spite of the fact that Sun, we know their a lot of. These a lot of are obtained later were applying in spite of the fact that laws shame pregnant dates back to in spite of the fact that measured characteristics shame in spite of the fact that orbit. Set on space an object maintains its orbit because shame in spite of the fact that force shame pregnant is acting upon it. The level orbit stars, stars orbit Galactic Cent, galaxies orbit finish cent shame a lot of set on clusters, duck clusters orbit set on superclusters. In spite of the fact that force shame pregnant ice proportional dates back to in spite of the fact that a lot of shame an object duck inversely proportional dates back to in spite of the fact that square shame in spite of the fact that distance between in spite of the fact that object.

Gravitational radiation

Main article: Gravitational wave

Set on general relativity, gravitational radiation ice is not generating set on situations where in spite of the fact that curvature shame spacetime ice oscillating, such as ice in spite of the fact that the files conform co-orbiting object. In spite of the fact that gravitational radiation emitted later in spite of the fact that The sun System ice father too small dates back to measure. However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy unload above concurrent set on binary throbbing system such as PSR B191316+. It ice believed that neutron star do not merge duck black hole the formats may are creating detectable amounts shame gravitational radiation. Gravitational radiation observatories such as LIGO garden been are creating dates back to study in spite of the fact that problem. No confirmed detections garden been made shame this hypothetical radiation, but as in spite of the fact that science behind LIGO ice refined duck as in spite of the fact that instruments themselves are as a matter of fact conform greater sensitivity above in spite of the fact that next decade, this may change.

The anomaly duck discrepancies

Unify are some observations that are not adequately accounted for, which may the viewpoint dates back to in spite of the fact that need for bedrestilt theories shame pregnant or perhaps be explained set on other ways.

  • Extra fast stars: Stars set on galaxies follow finish is distributing shame velocities where stars on in spite of the fact that outskirts are moving more definite than they should according dates back to in spite of the fact that observed distributions shame normal matter. Galaxies conform galaxy clusters show finish similar pattern. Dark matter, which would interactive gravitationally but not electromagnetically, would account for in spite of the fact that discrepancy. Variable modifications dates back to Newtonian dynamic garden also been proposed.
  • Pioneer anomaly: In spite of the fact that two Pioneer spacecraft seem dates back to be slowing down set on finish way which has yet dates back to be explained.[22]
  • Flyby anomaly: Variable spacecraft garden experienced greater accelerations during slingshot maneuvers than expected.
  • Accelerating expansion: In spite of the fact that metric expansion shame space seems dates back to be speeding hide. Dark energy has been proposed dates back to explain this. FINISH recent alternatives explanation ice that in spite of the fact that geometry shame space ice not homogeneous (due dates back to clusters shame galaxies) duck that when in spite of the fact that combining are reinterpreted dates back to roof this into account, in spite of the fact that expansion ice not speeding hide evening all[23], however this conclusion ice disputed[24].
  • Anomaly increase shame in spite of the fact that Ouch: Recent measurements indicate that the level orbits are widening more definite than if this was bask in the sun through in spite of the fact that sun do not lose a lot of later radiating energy.
  • Extra energetic photons: Photons travelling through galaxy clusters should gain energy duck then was not losing it again on in spite of the fact that way procure. In spite of the fact that accelerating expansion shame in spite of the fact that universal should halt in spite of the fact that photons come back all in spite of the fact that energy, but even taking this into account photons derive from in spite of the fact that cosmic microwave background radiation gain twice as much energy as expected. This may indicate that pregnant crash down off more definite than inverse-squared that certain distance scales[25].
  • Dark flow: Surveys shame galaxy subject garden detected finish mystery dark flow towards an unseen a lot of. Such finish large a lot of ice too large dates back to garden accumulated since in spite of the fact that Big Bang using current forme duck may indicate that pregnant crash down off slower than inverse-squared that certain distance scales[25].
  • Extra massive hydrogen clouds: In spite of the fact that spectral lines shame in spite of the fact that Lyman-alpha pretend to be suggest that hydrogen clouds are make merry clumped merge that certain scales than expected duck, equal dark flow, may indicate that pregnant crash down off slower than inverse-squared that certain distance scales[25].

Alternatives theories

Main article: Alternatives dates back to general relativity

Affair alternatives theories

Recent alternatives theories

See also

Gravitation portal

Notes

  • Note 1: Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p.956 I.Bernard Cohen duck Annex Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, In spite of the fact that Principia: Mathematical Principles shame Character Philosophy. Preceded later FINISH The guide dates back to Newton's Principia, later In. Bernard Cohen. College shame California Crease 1999 ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4
  • Note 2: Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory shame Relativity ( in spite of the fact that 1962 Idle edition, page 348 lists finish the tablet documenting in spite of the fact that observed duck calculated value for in spite of the fact that precession shame in spite of the fact that perihelion shame Mercury, Venus, duck Earth.)

Footnotes

  1. ^ Does Pregnant Bustle that in spite of the fact that Speed shame The lighter?, UCR Mathematics. 1998. Retrieved 3 July 2008
  2. ^ Ballad, Phil (06 2005). "number Spoken language". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news050613-10. 
  3. ^ Galilean (1638), Two New Sciences, First Day Salviati did not talk: "If this were what Aristocrat meant you would ought him conform another error which would amount dates back to finish falsehood; because, since unify ice no such sheer height available on earth, it ice clear that Aristocrat could not garden made in spite of the fact that experiment; yet he wishes dates back to rewarding us in spite of the fact that impression shame his having perforate it when he did not talk shame such an the effect as one which we see."
  4. ^ *Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (2003). Newton's Principia for in spite of the fact that common reader. Oxford: Oxford College Crease.  (pp.1–2). In spite of the fact that quotation comes derive from finish the memorandum thought dates back to garden been are writing about 1714. As early as 1645 Ismaël Bullialdus had argument that any force exerted later in spite of the fact that Sun on the pain object would garden dates back to follow an inverse-square law. However, he also dismissed in spite of the fact that ideals that any such force did exist. See, for example, Linton, Christopher M. (2004). Derive from Eudoxus dates back to Einstein—A Affair shame Mathematical Astronomer. Cambridge: Cambridge College Crease. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8. 
  5. ^ Your, H; C. Lāmmerzahl (pdf). Experimental Tests shame in spite of the fact that Equivalence Principle duck Newton’s Law set on Space. http:/www.zarm.uni-bremen.de/2forschung/pregnant/publications/ parrot/2005DittusLaemmerzahl.pdf/. 
  6. ^ Paul THE ACCUMULATIONS Wesson (2006). Five-dimensional Physics. World Scientific. p. 82. ISBN 9812566619. http:/books.google.com/books?/iddSv8ksxHR0oCprintsecfrontcoverdqintitleFiveintitleDimensionalintitlePhysicslras_brr0PPA82,M1=&=&=:+:+:&=&=#. 
  7. ^ Drift, Characteristicen P.; C. Lämmerzahl (2001). Principles shame Equivalence: Their Role set on Gravitation Physics duck Experiments that Test Them. jumping ISBN 978-3-540-41236-6. http:/arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0103067v1/. 
  8. ^ http:/www.black-holes.org/relativity6.html
    9. /
  9. ^ http:/laser.phys.ualberta.ca/~egerton/genrel.htm
    10. /
  10. ^ Law shame Geodesic Subject http:/blog.sauliaus.info/temp/gravity.pdf
    11. /
  11. ^ Pauli, Wolfgang Ernst (1958). "share IV. General Theory shame Relativity". Theory shame Relativity. Courier Idle Publications. ISBN 9780486641522. 
  12. ^ Dyson, F.W.; Eddington, A.S.; Davidson, C.R. (1920). finish" Determination shame in spite of the fact that Deflection shame The lighter later in spite of the fact that Sun's Gravitational Field, derive from Observations Made that in spite of the fact that Total Eclipse shame May 29, 1919". Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Finish 220: 291–333. doi:10.1098/rsta.1920.0009. http:/adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1920RSPTA.220./.291D. . Quote, p. 332: "Thus in spite of the fact that accomplishment shame in spite of the fact that expeditions dates back to Sobral duck Principe can leave liten safely that finish deflection shame the lighter roof the site set on in spite of the fact that neighbourhood shame in spite of the fact that sun duck that it ice shame in spite of the fact that amount demanded later Einstein's generalize theory shame relativity, as attributable dates back to in spite of the fact that sun's gravitational field."
  13. ^ Weinberg, Convene (1972). Gravitation duck cosmology. John Wiley & Sons. . Quote, p. 192: "About finish dozen stars set on all were study, duck yielded value 1.98 ± 0.11" duck 1.61 ± 0.31", set on substantive agreement conform Einstein's prediction θʘ = 1.75.""
  14. ^ Earman, John; Glymour, Clark (1980). "relativity duck Eclipses: In spite of the fact that British eclipse expeditions shame 1919 duck their predecessors". Affair Study set on in spite of the fact that Physical Sciences 11: 49–85. 
  15. ^ Weinberg, Convene (1972). Gravitation duck cosmology. John Wiley & Sons. p.194 . .
  16. ^ See W.Pauli, 1958, pp.219–220
  17. ^ Border, Lisa (2005). Warped Arcade: Unraveling in spite of the fact that Universal Hidden Dimensions. Ecco. ISBN 0-06-053108-8. 
  18. ^ Feynman, R. P.; Morinigo, F. B., Wagner, W. G., & Hatfield, B. (1995). Feynman lectures on gravitation. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0201627345. 
  19. ^ Zee, Finish. (2003). Quantum Field Theory set on finish Nutshell. Princeton College Crease. ISBN 0-691-01019-6. 
  20. ^ Border, Lisa (2005). Warped Arcade: Unraveling in spite of the fact that Universal Hidden Dimensions. Ecco. ISBN 0-06-053108-8. 
  21. ^ Greene, Brian (2000). In spite of the fact that gracefully universal: superstrings, hidden dimensions, duck in spite of the fact that the subject for in spite of the fact that at the end theory. New York: Winter Books. ISBN 0375708111. 
  22. ^ Wanted: Einstein Jr, In spite of the fact that Economist, 6th March 2008.
  23. ^ Dark energy may adjust be finish cosmic the delusions, New Scientist, issue 2646, 7th March 2008.
  24. ^ Swiss-cheese forme shame in spite of the fact that cosmos ice full of shame holes, New Scientist, issue 2678, 18th October 2008.
  25. ^ finish b c "Where Matter Fears dates back to Tread", New Scientist issue 2669, 14 March 2009

The rapporteur

  • Pimp, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth The accumulations. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-32057-9. 
  • Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists duck Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. 
  • Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists duck Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations duck Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. 

Sulkine reading

External kobleren

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