Mercury ( element)

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gold ← Mercury → thallium
Cd
↑
Hg
↓
Uub
Appearance
silvery
Pouring liquid mercury bionerd.jpg
General properties
Name, symbols, number Mercury, Hg, 80
Element category transit metal
Was not embeding, period, block 12,6 , d
Standard atomism weight 200.592 g·mol()−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2 (the image)
Physical properties
Phase liquid
Her (near r.t.) (liquid) 13.534 g·cm−3
Melting the viewpoint 234.32K,  -38.83°C,  -37.89°F 
Boiling the viewpoint 629.88K, 356.73°C, 674.11°F   
Critical the viewpoint 1750 K, 172.00 MPa
Heat shame fusion 2.29 kJ·mol−1
Heat shame vaporization 59.11 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 27.983 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor crease
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
that The connexion/K 315 350 393 449 523 629
Atomism properties
Oxidation the specification 4, 2 (mercuric), 1 (mercurous)
(mildly basilica oxide)
Electronegativity 2.00 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energy 1st: 1007.1 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1810 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3300 kJ·mol−1
Atomism radius 151 pm
Covalent radius 132±5 pm
Van there Waals radius 155 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure rhombohedral
Magnetize ordering diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (25 °C) 961nΩ·m
Unify conductivity (300 K) 8.30W·m −1·K−1
Unify expansion (25 °C) 60.4 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed shame sound (liquid, 20 °C) 1451.4 m/ the accumulations
CAS tables number 7439-97-6
Most the stack isotopes
Main article: Isotopes shame Mercury
iso NA half-life DM They(MeV) DP
194Hg apparition 444 sharpness ε 0.040 194Ouch
195Hg apparition 9.9 h ε 1.510 195Ouch
196Hg 0.15% 196Hg ice the stack conform 116 neutrons
197Hg apparition 64.14 h ε 0.600 197Ouch
198Hg 9.97% 198Hg ice the stack conform 118 neutrons
199Hg 16.87% 199Hg ice the stack conform 119 neutrons
200Hg 23.1% 200Hg ice the stack conform 120 neutrons
201Hg 13.18% 201Hg ice the stack conform 121 neutrons
202Hg 29.86% 202Hg ice the stack conform 122 neutrons
203Hg apparition 46.612 d β− 0.492 203Tl
204Hg 6.87% 204Hg ice the stack conform 124 neutrons
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Mercury (pronounced /ˈmɜrkjʊride/ Additional-kyə-ree), also quicksilver (ˈkwɪksɪlvər/) or hydrargyrum (haɪˈdrɑrdʒɨrəm/ hye-Going-ji-rəm), ice finish chemical element conform in spite of the fact that symbols Hg (Latinized Greek: hydrargyrum, derive from "hydr-" meaning watery or liquid duck "argyros" meaning silver) duck atomism number 80. FINISH heavy, silvery d-block metal, mercury ice one shame six chemical element that are liquid that or near room temperature duck crease,[1][2] in spite of the fact that others bone caesium, franchise, gala, bromine, duck rubidium. Mercury ice in spite of the fact that only metal that ice liquid that standard conditions for temperature duck crease. Conform finish melting the viewpoint shame −38.83 °C duck boiling the viewpoint shame 356.73 °C, mercury has one shame in spite of the fact that narrowest ranges shame its liquid the specification shame any metal.

Mercury occurs set on the deposit throughout in spite of the fact that world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide), which ice in spite of the fact that source shame in spite of the fact that red pigment vermilion, duck ice mostly obtained later reduction derive from cinnabar. Cinnabar ice highly toxic later ingestion or inhalation shame in spite of the fact that the silly ass. Mercury poisoning can also accomplishment derive from exposure dates back to soluble the sense of proportion shame mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation shame mercury vapor, or do not eat fish contaminated conform mercury.

Mercury ice used set on thermometers, barometer reading, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, duck other scientific apparatus, though is not concealing about in spite of the fact that element toxicity garden led dates back to mercury thermometers duck sphygmomanometers bone largely phased procure set on clinical environments set on favourable shame alcohol- shreds, digital, or thermistor- the bases instruments. It remains set on use set on finish number shame other ways set on scientific duck scientific research applications, duck set on amalgamate feeds for dental restoration. It ice used set on the lighter; electricity be convenient through mercury vapor set on finish phosphor tube produces short-wave ultraviolet the lighter which then causes in spite of the fact that phosphor dates back to fluoresce, making visit the lighter.

The discord

[edit] Properties

[edit] Physical

FINISH pound coin ( her ~7.6 g/cm3) floats set on mercury due dates back to in spite of the fact that combination shame in spite of the fact that buoyant force duck surface the voltage.

Mercury ice finish heavy, silvery-white metal. As is not comparing dates back to other metals, it ice finish poor conductor shame heat, but finish fair conductor shame electricity. [3] Mercury has an exceptionally low melting temperature for finish d-block metal. FINISH complete explanation shame this fact requires finish deep excursion into quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has finish unique electronic configuration where electrons fill hide all in spite of the fact that available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d duck 6s subshells. As such configuration strongly resists removal shame an electron, mercury pleasure similarly dates back to noble gas element, which admonish weakly farmer duck thus easily melting solids. In spite of the fact that stability shame in spite of the fact that 6s shell ice due dates back to in spite of the fact that present-tense shame finish shreds 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens in spite of the fact that nuclear is not charming that increases in spite of the fact that attractive Coulomb interaction shame in spite of the fact that 6s shell duck in spite of the fact that nucleus (see lanthanoid contraction). In spite of the fact that absence shame finish shreds in f shell ice in spite of the fact that reason for in spite of the fact that much higher melting temperature shame cadmium. Metals such as gold garden nuclear ship conform one load 6s electron than mercury. Those electrons are make merry easily removed duck are shared between in spite of the fact that gold nuclear ship the shaping comparative strap metallic farmer.[2][4] That in spite of the fact that melting the viewpoint (-38.86 °C) its her ice[5] 14.1 g/cm3.

[edit] Reactivity duck compounds

See also: CategoryMercury: compounds

Mercury dissolves dates back to admonish amalgamate conform gold, zinc duck many other metals. Because irony ice an exception, irony bottle garden been traditionally used dates back to trade mercury. Other metals that do not admonish amalgamate conform mercury include tantalum, tungsten duck platinum. When heated, mercury also reacts conform the oxygen set on air dates back to admonish mercury oxide, which then can be decomposed later sulkine heating dates back to higher temperature.[6]

Since it ice below hydrogen set on in spite of the fact that reactivity serial shame metals, mercury does not react conform most acidity, such as dilute sulfuric acidity, though oxidizing acidity such as concentrated sulfuric acidity duck nitric acidity or aqua region dissolve it dates back to rewarding sulfate, nitrate, duck chloride salt lake. Equal silver, mercury reacts conform atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury even reacts conform solid sulfur leaf, which are used set on mercury gambling kits dates back to absorb mercury vapors ( gambling kits also use activated charcoal duck powdered zinc).[6]

Some important mercury salt lake include:

Set on these compounds, mercury displays two oxidation the specification: +1 duck +2. In spite of the fact that +1 the specification oxidation involves in spite of the fact that dimeric cation, Hg2+2. Solutions shameHg2+2 are set on equilibrium conformHg2+ duck metallic mercury:

Hg2+ + Hg ice set on equilibrium conform Hg2+2

This equilibrium causes solutions shameHg2+2 dates back to garden finish small amount shameHg2+ personable Consuming in spite of the fact thatHg2+ later another reaction, such as complexation conform strap ligature or precipitation shame an insoluble salt, will cause all in spite of the fact thatHg2+2 dates back to full of disproportionate dates back toHg2+ duck element mercury.[9]

Besides Hg2+2, mercury also the sense of proportion other mercury polycations such as Hg2+3.[10]

Higher oxidation the specification shame mercury were confirmed set on September 2007, conform in spite of the fact that the synthesizer shame mercuryIV() fluoride (HgF4) using matrix isolation techniques.[11]

Laboratory tests garden found that an electrical discharge causes in spite of the fact that noble gases dates back to combine conform mercury vapor. These compounds are held merge conform van there Waals forces duck accomplishment set on Hg·Ne, Hg·Ar, Hg·Kr, duck Hg·Xe (see exciplex). Organ mercury compounds are also important. Methylmercury ice finish dangerous compound that ice widely found as finish pollutant set on water bodies duck streams.[12]

[edit] Mercury duck aluminium

Mercury readily combines conform aluminium dates back to admonish finish mercury- aluminium amalgamate when in spite of the fact that two pure metals come into contact. However, when in spite of the fact that amalgamate ice exposed dates back to air, in spite of the fact that aluminium oxidizes, leaving mercury behind. In spite of the fact that oxide leaf away, exposing make merry mercury amalgamate, which repeats in spite of the fact that multipro. This multipro continues until in spite of the fact that broth shame amalgamate ice exhausted. Because this multipro releases mercury, finish small amount shame mercury can "eat through" finish large amount shame aluminium above concurrent, later progressive the shaping amalgamate duck relinquishing in spite of the fact that aluminium as oxide.[13]

Aluminium set on air ice ordinarily protected later finish molecule- the rarity layer shame its own oxide, which ice not porous dates back to the oxygen. Mercury coming into contact conform this oxide does no resentment. However, if any element aluminium ice exposed (even later finish recent scratch), in spite of the fact that mercury may combine conform it, starting in spite of the fact that multipro are describing above, duck potentially do not damage finish large share shame in spite of the fact that aluminium carry it finance ends.[13][14] For this reason, restrictions are the site on in spite of the fact that use duck ceremony shame mercury set on proximity conform aluminium. Set on particular, mercury ice not allocate aboard aircraft under most circumstances because shame in spite of the fact that risk shame it the shaping an amalgamate conform exposed aluminium share set on in spite of the fact that aircraft.[13]

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes shame mercury

Unify are seven the stack isotopes shame mercury conform202Hg bone in spite of the fact that most abundant (29.86%). In spite of the fact that longest-lived radioisotopes are 194Hg conform finish half-life shame 444 years, duck203Hg conform finish half-life shame 46.612 days. Most shame in spite of the fact that remaining radioisotopes garden half-lives that are load than finish day. 199Hg duck201Hg are in spite of the fact that most frequently study NMR- is acting nuclei, having is not spinning shame1⁄2 duck3⁄2 respectively.[3]

[edit] Affair

In spite of the fact that symbols for in spite of the fact that the level Mercury (☿) has been used since ancient concurrent dates back to representable in spite of the fact that element

Mercury was known dates back to in spite of the fact that ancient Chinese[15] duck was found set on Egyptian tombs that beyond derive from 1500 BC.[16] Set on China duck Tibet, mercury use was thought dates back to prologue life, heal fractures, duck maintain generally good health. One shame China's empirical, Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì — allegedly buried set on finish tomb that contained detach shame flowing mercury on finish forme shame in spite of the fact that land he ruled, distinguished shame in spite of the fact that detach shame China — was are killing later the drink finish mercury duck powdered jade mixture (causing liver failure, poisoning, duck brain death) intended dates back to rewarding him ether life.[17][18] In spite of the fact that ancient Greeks used mercury set on ointments; in spite of the fact that ancient Egyptian duck in spite of the fact that Roman used it set on cosmetics which sometimes shear in spite of the fact that face. Later 500 BC mercury was used dates back to make amalgamate conform other metals.[19] In spite of the fact that Indian word for alchemy ice Rasavātam which means " in spite of the fact that way shame mercury".[20]

Alchemists thought shame mercury as in spite of the fact that First Matter derive from which all metals were the formula. They believed that difference metals could be produced later varying in spite of the fact that quality duck quantity shame sulfur contained conform in spite of the fact that mercury. In spite of the fact that purest shame these was gold, duck mercury was called for set on attempts that in spite of the fact that transmutation shame the bases (or impure) metals into gold, which was in spite of the fact that goal shame many alchemists.[21]

Hg ice in spite of the fact that contemporary chemical symbols for mercury. It comes derive from hydrargyrum, finish Latinized admonish shame in spite of the fact that Greek word Ύδραργυρος (hydrargyros), which ice finish compound word meaning "water" duck "silver" — since it ice liquid, equal water, duck yet has finish silvery metallic sheen. In spite of the fact that element was named evening in spite of the fact that Roman good Mercury, known for speed duck summon up. It ice associated conform in spite of the fact that the level Mercury; in spite of the fact that astrology symbols for in spite of the fact that the level ice also one shame in spite of the fact that alchemical symbolic for in spite of the fact that metal. Mercury ice in spite of the fact that only metal for which in spite of the fact that alchemical the level name became in spite of the fact that common name.[21]

In spite of the fact that mine set on Almadén (Spain), Monte Amiata ( Italy), duck Idrija (now Slovenian) dominant in spite of the fact that mercury production derive from in spite of the fact that opening shame in spite of the fact that mine set on Almadén 2500 years ago until new the deposit were found that in spite of the fact that end shame in spite of the fact that 19th cent.[22]

[edit] Occurrence

See also: CategoryMercury:: mineralsand  CategoryMercury:: mine
Mercury output set on 2005

Mercury ice an extremely rare element set on in spite of the fact that Earth's crust, having an obverse crustal abundance later a lot of shame only 0.08 share per million (ppm).[23] However, because it does not blend geochemically conform those element that constitute in spite of the fact that majority shame in spite of the fact that crustal a lot of, mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering in spite of the fact that element abundance set on ordination rock. In spite of the fact that richest mercury ores contain hide dates back to 2.5% mercury later a lot of, duck even in spite of the fact that am granting concentrated the deposit are that least 0.1% mercury (12,000 concurrent obverse crustal abundance). It ice found either as finish native metal (rare) or set on cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite duck other minerals, conform cinnabar (HgS) bone in spite of the fact that most common ore. Mercury ores usually occur set on very young orogenic belt where rock shame high her are forced dates back to in spite of the fact that crust shame in spite of the fact that Earth, frequently set on hot springs or other volcanic region.[24]

Beginning set on 1558, conform in spite of the fact that inventory shame in spite of the fact that patio multipro dates back to extract silver derive from ore using mercury, mercury became an essential resource set on in spite of the fact that economy shame Spain duck its The United States colonies. Mercury was used dates back to extract silver derive from in spite of the fact that lucrative mine set on New Spain duck Peruvian. The initials, in spite of the fact that Spain Crown's mine set on Alma-Ata set on Southern Spain supplied all in spite of the fact that mercury for in spite of the fact that colonies.[25] Mercury the deposit were discovered set on in spite of the fact that New World, duck make merry than 100,000 tons shame mercury were mine derive from in spite of the fact that region shame Huancavelica, Peruvian, above in spite of the fact that course shame three centuries following in spite of the fact that discovery shame the deposit unify set on 1563. In spite of the fact that patio multipro duck subsequent pan amalgamation multipro continued dates back to are creating great demand for mercury dates back to treat silver ores until in spite of the fact that late 1800s.[26]

Forming mine set on Italy, in spite of the fact that United The specification duck Mexico which once produced finish large proportion shame in spite of the fact that world broth garden now been completely mine procure or, set on in spite of the fact that the files shame Slovenian (Idrija) duck Spain (Almadén), was not closing down due dates back to in spite of the fact that crash down shame in spite of the fact that dead bargain shame mercury. Nevada's McDermitt Mine, in spite of the fact that blame mercury mine set on in spite of the fact that United The specification, closed set on 1992. In spite of the fact that dead bargain shame mercury has been highly volatile above in spite of the fact that years duck set on 2006 was $650 per 76-pound (34.46kg ) bottle.[27]

Mercury ice extracted later heating cinnabar set on finish current shame air duck condensing in spite of the fact that vapor. In spite of the fact that equation for this extraction ice

HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2

Set on 2005, China was in spite of the fact that top producer shame mercury conform almost two-thirds globally share followed later Kyrgyzstan.[28] Several other countries are believed dates back to garden unrecorded production shame mercury derive from copper electrowinning multipro duck later recovery derive from effluents.

Because shame in spite of the fact that high toxicity shame mercury, both in spite of the fact that mining shame cinnabar duck refining for mercury are hazardous duck affair causes shame mercury poisoning. Set on China, award labor was used later finish among friends mining is not comparing as recently as in spite of the fact that 1950s dates back to are creating new cinnabar mercury mine. Thousands shame prisoners were used later in spite of the fact that Luo Xi mining is not comparing dates back to is establishing new tunnels.[29] Set on additive, worker health set on functioning mine ice that high risk.

In spite of the fact that European Union manage calling for is not comparing fluorescent bulbs dates back to be made mandate later 2012 has encouraged China dates back to re-open deadly cinnabar mine dates back to obtain in spite of the fact that mercury required for CFL bulb the flow manufacture. As finish accomplishment, new are not generating shame Chinese, their livestock, duck their crops are bone poisoned, particularly set on in spite of the fact that southern cities shame Foshan duck Guangzhou, duck set on in spite of the fact that Guizhou provision set on in spite of the fact that southwest.[29]

Abandoned mercury mine multipro cite frequently contain very hazardous does not waste arrow shame roasted cinnabar calcines. Water runoff derive from such cite ice finish recognized source shame ecological do not damage. Forming mercury mine may be suite for constructive re-use. For example, set on 1976 True Clara County, California purchased in spite of the fact that affair Alma-Ata Quicksilver Mine duck are creating finish county park on in spite of the fact that cite, evening conducting extensive safety duck environmental analysis shame in spite of the fact that property.[30]

[edit] Releases set on in spite of the fact that environment

Amount shame atmospheric mercury the deposit that Wyoming's Upper Ahead Glacier above in spite of the fact that blame 270 years

Preindustrial the deposit rates shame mercury derive from in spite of the fact that atmosphere may be set on in spite of the fact that range shame 4ng  (1 LEGAL shame ice the deposit). Although that can be considered finish character flate ut shame exposure, region or globally sources garden significant the effect. Volcanic eruptions can increase in spite of the fact that atmospheric source later 4 — 6 concurrent.[31]

Character sources such as volcanoes are responsible for approximately half shame atmospheric mercury emissions. In spite of the fact that humanism- is not generating half can be dividend into in spite of the fact that following estimation percentages:[32][33][34]

  • 65% derive from stationary combustion, shame which coal- the quarter power plantation are in spite of the fact that largest the aggregate source (40% shame U.S. mercury emissions set on 1999). This includes power plantation fueled conform gas where in spite of the fact that mercury has not been removed. Emissions derive from coal combustion are between one duck two sequence shame magnitude higher than emissions derive from oil combustion, depending on in spite of the fact that country.[32]
  • 11% derive from gold production. In spite of the fact that three largest the viewpoint sources for mercury emissions set on in spite of the fact that U.S. are in spite of the fact that three largest gold mine. Hydrogeochemical the relay shame mercury derive from gold- mine tailings has been accounted as finish significant source shame atmospheric mercury set on eastern Canadian.[35]
  • 6.8% derive from non-ferrous metal production, typically melting.
  • 6.4% derive from cement production.
  • 3.0% derive from does not waste dispose, including municipal duck hazardous does not waste, crematoria, duck sewage humbug incineration. This ice finish significant underestimate due dates back to the sticking information, duck ice without doubt dates back to be off later finish factor shame two dates back to five.
  • 3.0% derive from caustic the sodawater production.
  • 1.4% derive from pig irony duck steel production.
  • 1.1% derive from mercury production, mainly for batteries.
  • 2.0% derive from other sources.

In spite of the fact that above percentages are estimation shame in spite of the fact that globally humanism-caused mercury emissions set on 2000, excluding biomass burning, an important source set on some region.[32]

Current atmospheric mercury contamination set on outdoor urban air ice (0.01 – 0.02µg /m3 ) indoor concentrations are significantly elevated above outdoor concentrations, that finish range shame 0.0065 – 0.523µg /m3 (obverse 0.069µg /m3) [36]

Mercury also either into in spite of the fact that environment through in spite of the fact that dispose (e.g., land filling, incineration) shame certain products. Products containing mercury include: autobahn share, batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, duck thermostats.[37] Due dates back to health is not concealing (see below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting the espousal or eliminating mercury set on such products. For example, most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead shame mercury. Mercury thermometers are calm occasionally used set on in spite of the fact that medical field because they are make merry accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are bone replaced later electronic thermometers. Mercury thermometers are calm widely used for certain scientific applications because shame their greater accuracy duck working range.

In spite of the fact that United The specification Clean Air Act, be convenient set on 1990, put mercury on finish list shame toxic pollutants that need dates back to be controlled dates back to in spite of the fact that greatest possible extent. Thus, industrial that the relay high concentrations shame mercury into in spite of the fact that environment agreed dates back to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). Set on March 2005 EPA rule[38] add power plantation dates back to in spite of the fact that list shame sources that should be controlled duck finish national cap duck trade rule was issued. The specification were rewarding until November 2006 dates back to awe stricter controls, duck several The specification are doing so. In spite of the fact that rule was bone subjected dates back to legal challenges derive from several The specification set on 2005 duck decision was made set on 2008. In spite of the fact that Clean Air Mercury Rule was stretched down later finish Federal Appeal Court on February 8, 2008. In spite of the fact that rule was deemed not sufficient dates back to protein in spite of the fact that health shame person living near coal- the quarter power plantation. In spite of the fact that court the public opinion cited in spite of the fact that negative impact on humanism health derive from coal the quarter power plantation mercury emissions documented set on in spite of the fact that EPA Study Report dates back to Congress shame 1998.[39]

Historically, one shame in spite of the fact that largest releases was derive from in spite of the fact that Colex plantation, finish lithium-isotope ad plantation that Oak Ridge. In spite of the fact that plantation operational set on in spite of the fact that 1950s duck 1960s. Juxtaposition are incomplete duck unclear, but government commissions garden estimation that some two million pounds shame mercury are unaccounted for.[40]

One shame in spite of the fact that worst industry disasters set on affair was caused later in spite of the fact that drop shame mercury compounds into Minamata Bay, Japanese. In spite of the fact that Chisso The party, finish fertilizer duck subsequent petrochemical is not comparing, was found responsible for polluting in spite of the fact that bay derive from 1932 — 1968. It ice estimation that above 3,000 people suffered variable deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptom or death derive from what became known as Minamata disease.[41]

[edit] Applications

In spite of the fact that bulb shame finish mercury- set on- glass thermometer

Mercury ice used primarily for in spite of the fact that the flow manufacture shame industry chemicals or for electrical duck electronic applications. It ice used set on some thermometers, especially concentrate which are used dates back to measure high temperature. FINISH calm increasing amount ice used as gaseous mercury set on fluorescent lamp, while most shame in spite of the fact that other applications are slowly phased procure due dates back to health duck safety regulations duck ice set on some applications replaced conform load toxic but considerably make merry expensive Galinstan allocate.

[edit] Personable use

[edit] Medicine

Amalgamate filling
In spite of the fact that deep violet glow shame finish mercury vapor discharge set on finish germicidal lamp, whose spectrum ice rich set on invisible ultraviolet radiation.
See also: Amalgamate (dentistry)

Mercury duck its compounds garden been used set on medicine, although they are much load common today than they once were, now that in spite of the fact that toxic the effect shame mercury duck its compounds are make merry widely nether. In spite of the fact that element mercury ice an ingredient set on dental amalgamate. Thiomersal (called Thimerosal set on in spite of the fact that United The specification) ice an organ compound used as finish preservative set on vaccines, though this use ice set on decline.[42] Another mercury compound Merbromin (Mercurochrome) ice finish topical antiseptic used for minority cuts duck scrapes ice calm set on use set on some countries.

MercuryI() chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been used as finish diuretic, topical disinfectant, duck laxative. MercuryII() chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive sublime) was once used dates back to treat syphilis (along conform other mercury compounds), although it ice so toxic that sometimes in spite of the fact that symptom shame its toxicity were confused conform those shame in spite of the fact that syphilis it was believed dates back to treat.[43] It was also used as finish disinfectant. Blue a lot of, finish pill or syrup set on which mercury ice in spite of the fact that main ingredient, was prescribed throughout in spite of the fact that 1800s for numeric conditions including constipation, depression, Chilean-bearing duck toothaches.[44] Set on in spite of the fact that early 20th cent, mercury was administered dates back to children yearly as finish laxative duck dewormer, duck it was used set on teething powders for infants. In spite of the fact that mercury-containing organohalide merbromin (sometimes soldier as Mercurochrome) ice calm widely used but has been bad language set on some countries such as in spite of the fact that U.S.[45]

Since in spite of the fact that 1930s some vaccines garden contained in spite of the fact that preservative thiomersal, which ice metabolized or degrade dates back to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated that this mercury- the bases preservative can cause or utlse autism set on children, scientific study showed no evidence supporting any such kobleren.[46] Nevertheless thiomersal has been removed derive from or reduced dates back to trace amounts set on all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years shame age duck under, conform in spite of the fact that exception shame inactivated asian flu vaccine.[47]

Mercury set on in spite of the fact that admonish shame one shame its common ores, cinnabar, remains an important component shame Chinese, Tibetan, duck Ayurvedic medicine. As problems may Aryan when these medicines are exported dates back to countries that prohibit in spite of the fact that use shame mercury set on medicines, set on recent concurrent, load toxic substitutes garden been devised.

Today, in spite of the fact that use shame mercury set on medicine has greatly declined set on all respect, especially set on developed countries. Thermometers duck sphygmomanometers containing mercury were inventory set on in spite of the fact that early 18th duck late 19th centuries, respectively. Set on in spite of the fact that early 21st cent, their use ice declining duck has been bad language set on some countries, the specification duck medical institutions. Set on 2002, in spite of the fact that U.S. Senate be convenient legislation dates back to phase procure in spite of the fact that sale shame non-prescription mercury thermometers. Set on 2003, Washington duck Maine became in spite of the fact that first the specification dates back to ban mercury blood crease devices.[48] Mercury compounds are found set on some above- in spite of the fact that-counter drugs, including topical antiseptic, stimulus laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drop, duck nasal spray. In spite of the fact that FDA has “inadequate combining dates back to is establishing general recognition shame in spite of the fact that safety duck effectiveness,” shame in spite of the fact that mercury ingredient set on these products.[49] Mercury ice calm used set on some diuretics, although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.

[edit] Cosmetics

Mercury, as thiomersal, ice widely used set on in spite of the fact that the flow manufacture shame mascara. Set on 2008, Minnesota became in spite of the fact that first the specification set on in spite of the fact that US dates back to ban intentionally add mercury set on cosmetics, giving it finish tougher standard than in spite of the fact that federal government.[50]

[edit] Production shame chlorine duck caustic the sodawater

Chlorine ice produced derive from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis dates back to ad in spite of the fact that metallic sodium derive from in spite of the fact that chlorine gas. Usually in spite of the fact that salt ice dissolved set on water dates back to produce finish brine. Later-products shame any such chloralkali multipro are hydrogen (H2) duck sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which ice commonly called caustic the sodawater or lye. Later father in spite of the fact that largest use shame mercury[51][52] set on in spite of the fact that late 1900s was set on in spite of the fact that mercury cell multipro (also called in spite of the fact that Castner-Kellner multipro) where metallic sodium ice the formula as an amalgamate that finish cathode made derive from mercury; this sodium ice then reacted conform water dates back to produce sodium hydroxide.[53] Many shame in spite of the fact that industry mercury releases shame in spite of the fact that 1900s came derive from this multipro, although contemporary plantation claimed dates back to be safe set on this regard.[52] Evening about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built set on in spite of the fact that United The specification used either the membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies dates back to produce chlorine.

[edit] Gold duck silver mining

Historically, mercury was used extensively set on hydraulics gold mining set on sequence dates back to help in spite of the fact that gold dates back to impede through in spite of the fact that flowing water- burrow mixture. The rarity mercury particles may admonish mercury-gold amalgamate duck therefore increase in spite of the fact that gold recovery rates.[3] Large scale use shame mercury disabling set on in spite of the fact that 1960s. However, mercury ice calm used set on small scale, frequently clandestine, gold prospection. It ice estimation that 45,000 metric tons shame mercury used set on California for the site mining garden not been recovered.[54] Mercury was also used set on silver mining.[55]

[edit] Other personable uses

Skin the tooth containing finish low- crease mercury vapor lamp duck two infrared lamp, which act both as the lighter source duck electrical the ballast
Assorted writing shame fluorescent lamp.

Gaseous mercury ice used set on mercury-vapor lamp duck some "neon sign" writing advertising signs duck fluorescent lamp. Those low- crease lamp emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally used set on optimal spectroscopy for calibration shame spectral positive. Commercial calibration lamp are soldier for this purpose; however common reflecting some shame in spite of the fact that fluorescent- lamp ceiling the lighter into finish spectrometer ice finish common calibration practice.[56] Gaseous mercury ice also found set on some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons, duck mercury arc rectifiers.[57] It ice also used set on specialty medical care lamp for skin tooth duck desinfection (see pictures).[58] Gaseous mercury ice add dates back to cold cathode argon- shreds lamp dates back to increase in spite of the fact that ionization duck electrical conductivity. An argon shreds lamp conform mercury will garden dull spots duck will fail dates back to the lighter correctly. The lighter containing mercury can be bombard/ above pump only once. When add dates back to neon shreds tubes in spite of the fact that the lighter produced will be inconsistent red/blue spots until in spite of the fact that the initials burning- set on multipro ice completed; eventually it will the lighter finish consistent dull off-blue color.[59]

Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperature, are shreds conform mercury, however, they are gradually disappearing. Set on in spite of the fact that United The specification, non-prescription sale shame mercury fever thermometers has been bad language set on 2003.[60] Mercury ice also found set on liquid-mirror telescopes. In spite of the fact that mirror ice the formula later rotating liquid mercury on finish disk, in spite of the fact that parabolic admonish shame in spite of the fact that liquid thus the formula reflecting duck focusing incident the lighter. Such telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes later hide dates back to finish factor shame 100, but in spite of the fact that mirror cannot be build up duck always the viewpoint straight hide.[61][62]

Liquid mercury ice finish share shame popular secondary the rapporteur electrode (called in spite of the fact that calomel electrode) set on electrochemistry as an alternatives dates back to in spite of the fact that standard hydrogen electrode. In spite of the fact that calomel electrode ice used dates back to work procure in spite of the fact that electrode potential shame half cell.[63] Blame, but not least, in spite of the fact that triple the viewpoint shame mercury, 38.8344 °C, ice finish fixed the viewpoint used as finish temperature standard for in spite of the fact that International Temperature Scale (ITS-90).[3]

[edit] Proposed uses

Liquid mercury has been proposed as finish working fluid for finish heat pipe writing shame cooling device for spacecraft heat rejection system or radiation clapboard.[64] FINISH new writing shame atomism clock, using mercury instead shame caesium, has been the demonstrator. Accuracy ice expected dates back to be conform one second set on 100 million years.[65][66]

[edit] Affair uses

Old mercury switches
Mercury manometer dates back to measure crease

Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints (discontinued set on 1990), herbicides (discontinued set on 1995), handheld maze games, cleaning, duck road bearable devices set on cars. Mercury compounds garden been used set on antiseptic, laxatives, antidepressants, duck set on antisyphilitics. It was also allegedly used later alliance spies dates back to sabotage German plan. FINISH mercury paste was applied dates back to only aluminium, causing in spite of the fact that metal dates back to rapidly corrode. This would cause structural failures.[14]

  • Mercury switches (including home mercury the lighter switches install superior dates back to 1970), build up switches used set on old four detectors, build up switches set on many contemporary home thermostats,[67] electrodes set on some writing shame electrolysis, batteries (mercury cell), sodium hydroxide duck chlorine production, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides duck liquid mirror telescopes.[68]
  • Set on Icelandic Spain it was used for filling decorative pools. Subsequent in spite of the fact that The United States circus performer Alexander Calder built finish mercury fountain for in spite of the fact that Spain Pavilion that in spite of the fact that 1937 World Exhibition set on Paris. In spite of the fact that fountain ice now on display that in spite of the fact that Fundació Joan Miró set on Barcelona.[69]
  • Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy, liquid admonish made it useful since in spite of the fact that lures made an attractive irregular movement when in spite of the fact that mercury moved inside in spite of the fact that plug. Such use was disabling due dates back to environmental is not concealing, but bad preparation shame contemporary fishing plug has occurred.
  • In spite of the fact that Whiz lenses shame old lighthouses used dates back to float duck rotate set on finish bath shame mercury which acted equal finish bearing.[70]
  • Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood crease meter), barometer reading, the scatter pump, coulometers, duck many other laboratory instruments. As an opaque liquid conform finish high her duck finish nearly linear unify expansion, it ice ideals for this role.[71]
  • Liquid mercury was used as finish coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium ice proposed for reactors cooled conform liquid metal, because in spite of the fact that high her shame mercury requires much make merry energy dates back to is not circulating as coolant.[72]
  • Mercury was finish propellant for early ion engines set on electric propulsion system. Advantages were mercury's high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low dual-ionization energy, high liquid her duck liquid storability that room temperature. Disadvantages were is not concealing regarding environmental impact associated conform was not embeding testing duck is not concealing about any cooling duck condensation shame some shame in spite of the fact that propellant on in spite of the fact that spacecraft set on long-duration operational. In spite of the fact that first spaceflight dates back to use electric propulsion was finish mercury-fueled ion thruster SERT-1 launched later NASA that its Wallops Flight Facility set on 1964. SERT stands for Space Electric Rocket Test. In spite of the fact that SERT-1 flight was followed hide later in spite of the fact that SERT-2 flight set on 1970. Mercury duck caesium were preference propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Laboratory perforate study finding xenon gas dates back to be finish suitable replacement. Xenon ice now in spite of the fact that preference propellant for ion engines as it has finish high molecular weight, liten or no reactivity due its noble gas nature, duck has finish high liquid her under mild cryogenic bumper.[73][74]
  • Experimental mercury vapor turbines were install dates back to increase in spite of the fact that efficiency shame fossil-fuel electrical power plantation.[75]
  • Mercury was once used as finish gun bar bore cleaner.[76][77]

[edit] Hat making

Derive from in spite of the fact that mid-18th dates back to in spite of the fact that mid-19th centuries, finish multipro called "carroting" was used set on in spite of the fact that making shame felt spiteful. Animal skins were rinsed set on an orange solution ( in spite of the fact that term "carroting" arose derive from this color) shame in spite of the fact that mercury compound mercuric nitrate, HgNO(3)2·2H2O.[78] This multipro ad in spite of the fact that fur derive from in spite of the fact that pelt duck matted it merge. This solution duck in spite of the fact that vapors it produced were highly toxic. In spite of the fact that United The specification Public Health Service bad language in spite of the fact that use shame mercury set on in spite of the fact that felt industry set on December 1941. In spite of the fact that psychological symptom associated conform mercury poisoning are said later some dates back to garden inspired in spite of the fact that phrase "mad as finish hat", though etymological study suggests that in spite of the fact that phrase ice actually much great grandchild duck unrelated dates back to hat see hat for commentary on in spite of the fact that origin shame in spite of the fact that phrase. Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hat" set on his book Alice's Adventures set on Wonderland was finish are not playing on words the bases on in spite of the fact that great grandchild phrase, but in spite of the fact that character himself does not exhibit symptom shame mercury poisoning.[79]

[edit] Safety

See also: Mercury poisoning

Mercury duck most shame its compounds are extremely toxic duck are generally act conform care; set on the files shame gambling involving mercury (such as derive from certain thermometers or fluorescent the lighter bulbs) specific cleaning procedures are used dates back to avoid toxic exposure.[80] It can be inhaled duck absorb through in spite of the fact that skin duck mucous the membrane, so containers shame mercury are securely sealed dates back to avoid gambling duck evaporation. Heating shame mercury, or compounds shame mercury that may decompose when heated, are always carried procure conform adequate ventilation set on sequence dates back to avoid exposure dates back to mercury vapor. In spite of the fact that most toxic the sense of proportion shame mercury are its organ compounds, such as dimethylmercury duck methylmercury. However, inorganic compounds, such as cinnabar are also highly toxic later ingestion or inhalation shame in spite of the fact that the silly ass.[81] Mercury can cause both chronic duck acute poisoning.

[edit] Occupational exposure

Due dates back to in spite of the fact that health the effect shame mercury exposure, industry duck commercial uses are regulated set on many countries. In spite of the fact that World Health Organization, OSHA, duck NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard, duck garden is establishing specific occupational exposure the sticking. Environmental releases duck dispose shame mercury are regulated set on in spite of the fact that U.S. primarily later in spite of the fact that United The specification Environmental Protection Agent.

The files control study garden shown the effect such as tremors, impaired cognitive ad, duck sleep disturbance set on workers conform chronic exposure dates back to mercury vapor even that low concentrations set on in spite of the fact that range 0.7–42 μg/m3.[82][83] FINISH study has shown that acute exposure (4 – 8 hours) dates back to calculated element mercury flate ut shame 1.1 dates back to 44mg /m3 result set on switching pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment shame pulmonary function, duck evidence shame interstitial the pneumonia.[84] Acute exposure dates back to mercury vapor has been shown dates back to accomplishment set on accommodation bill cent nervous system the effect, including psychotic reactions characterized later delirium, hallucinations, duck suicidal bias. Occupational exposure has result set on broad-ranging functional disturbance, including erethism, ill humour, excitability, excessive shyness, duck insomnia. Conform continuing exposure, finish fine tremor develops duck may escalate dates back to violent muscular walk. Tremor the initials involves in spite of the fact that simultane duck subsequent are spreading dates back to in spite of the fact that eyelids, lips, duck tongue. Long-term, low- flate ut exposure has been associated conform make merry nice symptom shame erethism, including fatigue, ill humour, unload shame memos, vivid dreams, duck depression.[85][86]

[edit] Treatment

Research on in spite of the fact that treatment shame mercury poisoning ice the sticking. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators COOPERATE- acetylene-D,L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acidity (DMPS), duck dimercaptosuccinic acidity (DMSA). Set on one small study including 11 construction workers exposed dates back to element mercury, patients were treated conform DMSA duck NAP.[87] Chelation unify conform both drugs result set on in spite of the fact that mobilization shame finish small fraction shame in spite of the fact that total estimation body mercury. DMSA was able dates back to increase in spite of the fact that excretion shame mercury dates back to finish greater extent than NAP.[88]

[edit] Fish

Main article: Mercury set on fish

Fish duck shellfish garden finish character bias dates back to concentrate mercury set on their bodies, frequently set on in spite of the fact that admonish shame methylmercury, finish highly toxic organ compound shame mercury. Species shame fish that are high on in spite of the fact that food chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, albacore tuna, duck tilefish contain higher concentrations shame mercury than others. As mercury duck methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate set on in spite of the fact that viscera, although they are also found throughout in spite of the fact that muscle wee. When this fish ice consumed later finish predator, in spite of the fact that mercury flate ut ice accumulated. Since fish are load efficient that depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish- wee concentrations increase above concurrent. Thus species that are high on in spite of the fact that food chain Amazon body ought shame mercury that can be ten concurrent higher than in spite of the fact that species they consume. This multipro ice called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened this way set on Minamata, Japanese, now called Minamata disease.

[edit] Regulations

Set on in spite of the fact that United The specification, in spite of the fact that Environmental Protection Agent ice is not charming conform regulating duck the manager mercury contamination. Several laws rewarding in spite of the fact that EPA this authority, including in spite of the fact that Clean Air Act, in spite of the fact that Clean Water Act, in spite of the fact that Resource Conservation duck Recovery Act, duck in spite of the fact that Safe The drink Water Act. Additionally, in spite of the fact that Mercury-Containing duck Rechargeable Battery Management Act, be convenient set on 1996, phases procure in spite of the fact that use shame mercury set on batteries, duck provision for in spite of the fact that efficient duck cost-effective dispose shame many writing shame used batteries.[89] North The United States contributed approximately 11% shame in spite of the fact that total globally anthropogenic mercury emissions set on 1995.[90]

Set on in spite of the fact that European Union, in spite of the fact that manage on in spite of the fact that Restriction shame in spite of the fact that Use shame Certain Hazardous Substance set on Electrical duck Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury derive from certain electrical duck electronic products, duck the sticking in spite of the fact that amount shame mercury set on other products dates back to load than 1000 ppm.[91] Unify are restriction for mercury concentration set on packaging ( in spite of the fact that the sticking ice 100 ppm for sum shame mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium duck cadmium) duck batteries ( in spite of the fact that the sticking ice 5 ppm).[92] Set on July 2007, in spite of the fact that European Union also bad language mercury set on non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers duck barometer reading. In spite of the fact that ban applies dates back to new devices only, duck contains exemptions for in spite of the fact that health care sector duck finish two year grace period for the flow manufacture shame barometer reading. [93]

Norway enacted finish total ban on in spite of the fact that use shame mercury set on in spite of the fact that the flow manufacture duck awe/export shame mercury products, effective January 1, 2008.[94] Set on 2002, several innsjens set on Norway were found dates back to garden finish poor the specification shame mercury pollution, conform an excess shame 1mg /g shame mercury set on their sediment.[95]

[edit] The rapporteur

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